| Guide | Anaesthesia dosing for surgery |
| Target group | Veterinarians |
| Sources | VMD Product Information Database; VMD: the Cascade; Merck Veterinary Manual; LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols; Indiana University: Bird Formulary; LafeberVet: IV catheter placement; LafeberVet: blood pressure monitoring; IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia; Improve International: avian anaesthesia guide |
| Version | 2026-05-20 |
| NOTE: In all my guides, I start from a situation where a wildlife rehabilitator takes his responsibility to take care of the animals in an ethically correct way. You should always try to minimize stress for the bird and since the birds, just like humans, are not the same, it can mean that you handle a problem in different ways by being creative! If I see different ways of doing the same thing, I try to write it down in my guides, but it is always up to the wildlife rehabilitator to take their own responsibility. I do not have to write “I recommend putting the bird down” or “contact a veterinarian” or “according to law, you should …” because I start from the situation where you do the best for the bird and that you as a wildlife rehabilitator have learned to draw the line so that you do not end up in an unwanted or illegal situation. There may be an eternal battle between what you want and what is best for the bird. There are also many factors where a similar situation can give different results. For example: access to a veterinarian, lack of time, lack of knowledge and previous experience can include cause large differences in the treatment and decision-making process and indirectly also the end result. Knowledge of basic things can make a huge difference in the stress level of the crow. For example. avoid anything that is black or checkered. They do not like it instinctively and it creates stress when they see that you are dealing with something that is black. I put energy into my guides to make it easier for a wildlife rehabilitator to find information and to spread knowledge. Do you see a way to improve my guides or do you see a mistake or do you want to add something, feel free to inform me! If you are worried about doing something because it is new, ask other wildlife rehabilitators or a veterinarian for help. The guides are continuously updated, so make sure to always download the latest version from www.corvidlove.com |
For a licensed or registered veterinarian: this is a sourced reference page for anaesthesia in birds, especially corvids, during surgery. It is not a finished anaesthetic protocol. Calculate every dose from the exact body weight, then adjust for ASA status, temperature, hydration, pain, stress, species, age and concurrent treatment. Record the legal basis for any off-label or cascade use.
National medicine practice
In the United Kingdom, check the VMD Product Information Database before prescribing. If no suitable authorised veterinary medicine exists for the species and indication, the VMD cascade guidance applies and the prescribing veterinary surgeon remains responsible for the choice. Source: VMD Product Information Database; VMD: the Cascade.
The active substances on this page are common in avian anaesthesia literature, but product names, concentrations, legal status and species indications differ between countries. The doses below are dosing references from avian sources; they are not proof that a product is authorised locally for corvids. Source: VMD Product Information Database; VMD: the Cascade; EU Union Product Database.
Standard approach during surgery
- Stabilise first: warmth, oxygen if needed, hydration status, analgesia and the shortest possible handling time. The bird’s condition before anaesthesia has a large effect on anaesthetic risk. Source: Improve International: avian anaesthesia guide.
- Fasting must be short and adapted to species and size. Merck describes 4-6 hours as common in many birds, but the crop must be palpated and sick birds may have delayed crop emptying. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual.
- Premedicate when appropriate, often with a benzodiazepine and an opioid, to reduce stress and lower the inhalant requirement. Pre-oxygenate for about 5 minutes when the situation allows it. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols.
- Induce most surgical patients with isoflurane or sevoflurane in oxygen. Start conservatively and titrate to effect. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols; Indiana University: Bird Formulary.
- Intubate for surgery when the bird is large enough and the procedure requires airway control. Birds have no epiglottis, so the glottis is visible, but the endotracheal tube should be uncuffed because complete tracheal rings make the trachea vulnerable to pressure injury. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual; Improve International: avian anaesthesia guide.
- Monitor actively: respiratory movement, heart rate, capnography when intubated, pulse oximetry when reliable, Doppler or ECG, body temperature and anaesthetic depth. Emergency drugs and a ventilation plan should be ready before induction. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual; IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia.
Access: vein, not artery
Anaesthetic drugs and fluids should be given through venous access or, when needed, intraosseous access. Common venous sites in birds are v. jugularis (the right side is often larger), v. cutanea ulnaris/v. basilica in the wing and v. metatarsalis medialis in the leg. Intraosseous access can be used when venous access is difficult, for example in the ulna or tibiotarsus according to the sources. Do not administer intra-arterially. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual; LafeberVet: IV catheter placement; IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia.
Arteries are used for monitoring, not for routine drug administration. For indirect blood pressure measurement, a Doppler probe is placed over an artery, for example the tibiotarsal or radial artery, with the cuff on the distal humerus or femur. Trends are usually more useful than a single reading. Source: LafeberVet: blood pressure monitoring.
Doses and use
This table is written for clinicians who can already intubate, ventilate, monitor and manage anaesthetic complications in birds. Titrate to effect and reduce doses in unstable, hypothermic, dehydrated, emaciated, neurologic or respiratory-compromised patients.
| Medicine | Sourced dose range | Role/route | Practical note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Isoflurane | Induction: 3-5% inhaled. Maintenance: usually 2-3% to effect, but species and individual condition may require lower or higher settings. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols; Merck Veterinary Manual. | Inhalation in oxygen through a precision vaporiser. Mask or chamber for induction, then preferably intubation for surgery. | A practical first-choice inhalant when equipment is available. It provides little or no analgesia, so analgesia must be planned separately. |
| Sevoflurane | 1-3% to effect; up to 5% for induction in avian formularies and protocols. Source: Indiana University: Bird Formulary; LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols. | Inhalation in oxygen through a sevoflurane-calibrated vaporiser. | An alternative inhalant when the veterinarian chooses it on the basis of local product availability and legal route. Use a current local SPC for the product actually used. |
| Midazolam | 0.5-1.0 mg/kg IM, SC, IV or intranasally. Merck also lists 1-2 mg/kg intranasally for sedation in many pet birds. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual; LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols. | Premedication and sedation. Allow time before handling; choose lower doses in weak patients. | Useful for anxiolysis, stress reduction and smoother induction or recovery. Check whether the product is veterinary or human and whether local cascade rules apply. |
| Butorphanol | 0.5-1.0 mg/kg SC, IM or IV in common protocols. Merck lists 0.5-3 mg/kg IM or intranasally depending on species. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual; LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols. | Premedication and analgesia/sedation. Often combined with midazolam. | Useful as a sedating opioid and for mild to moderate analgesia, but major surgery requires a clearer multimodal analgesic plan. |
| Ketamine | 5 mg/kg SC or IM as an adjunct in modern protocols; IV doses should be given slowly to effect. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols; IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia. | Adjunct, induction or immobilisation. Do not use it as the only plan for surgical anaesthesia. | Ketamine should be combined with a sedative and analgesic and is often followed by inhalant maintenance. Be ready to ventilate. |
| Ketamine + xylazine | Older injectable protocols often use xylazine 0.3-2 mg/kg with ketamine 10-30 mg/kg IM depending on bird group and source. Source: IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia. | IM; sometimes IV at a reduced dose only where the source and the patient make that appropriate. | Do not transfer this directly to corvids without veterinary assessment of species, weight, stress, temperature, circulation and ability to intubate or ventilate. |
| Propofol | 4-8 mg/kg IV slowly to effect; start lower if a benzodiazepine or other premedication has been used. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols. | Short IV induction when secure venous access and airway control are available. | Injectable induction is more situation-dependent than inhalant induction in birds. Check local authorisation and cascade status. |
| Lidocaine | 0.5-1 mg/kg for local blocks in conservative protocols. IVIS lists 1-2 mg/kg and a maximum of 4 mg/kg; the Bird Formulary warns not to exceed a total dose of 3 mg/kg. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols; Indiana University: Bird Formulary; IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia. | Local infiltration or line block. Dilute when needed so the volume can be measured accurately in small birds. | Count all local anaesthetic toward the total dose. Overdose can cause seizures and cardiovascular effects. |
| Bupivacaine | 0.5-1 mg/kg for local blocks in conservative protocols. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols. | Local block when a longer duration is needed. | Slower onset than lidocaine but longer effect. Be especially careful with total dose and dilution. |
| Meloxicam | 0.3-0.5 mg/kg SC, IM or IV perioperatively or postoperatively in avian protocols. Other avian sources list wider intervals, but surgical patients should be dosed conservatively and individually. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols; Indiana University: Bird Formulary. | NSAID as part of multimodal analgesia, not as the only analgesic for major surgery. | Assess hydration, renal status, bleeding risk and concurrent medication before using an NSAID. |
Important safety points
- Inhalant anaesthesia gives rapid control, but analgesia must be added separately. Source: LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols.
- Small birds lose heat quickly. Use active warming, measure body temperature and avoid unnecessarily long anaesthesia. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual; Improve International: avian anaesthesia guide.
- Prepare dilutions before induction. Very small volumes of midazolam, opioids, ketamine and local anaesthetics are easy to miscalculate if stock concentration is used directly. Source: IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia; Indiana University: Bird Formulary.
- Keep the endotracheal tube still. Even an uncuffed tube can injure the trachea if the head moves during anaesthesia. Source: Merck Veterinary Manual.
- Plan recovery before induction. Birds can wake disoriented; a quiet, warm and dim environment can reduce self-trauma. Source: IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia.
Sources
- VMD Product Information Database
- VMD: the Cascade
- Merck Veterinary Manual
- LafeberVet: avian anesthesia protocols
- Indiana University: Bird Formulary
- LafeberVet: IV catheter placement
- LafeberVet: blood pressure monitoring
- IVIS: avian injectable anesthesia
- Improve International: avian anaesthesia guide